Latin America’s history has been profoundly shaped by colonialism, slavery, and racial hierarchy. Among the most insidious racial projects to emerge from this legacy was blanqueamiento (Spanish for “whitening”) or branqueamento (Portuguese). This was not just a social phenomenon but a deliberate effort by Latin American elites to “improve the race” (mejorar la raza) by encouraging racial mixing with Europeans, with the ultimate goal of diluting African and Indigenous ancestry over generations. Governments, social elites, and even families promoted the idea that whiteness equated to progress, and policies were enacted to favor European immigration while limiting opportunities for Black and Indigenous populations.
Blanqueamiento operated in both symbolic and biological ways. On a symbolic level, it reinforced white dominance in social hierarchies, ensuring that lighter-skinned individuals had greater access to wealth, education, and social mobility. Biologically, it was pursued through the encouragement of interracial marriages—specifically between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned people—with the belief that whiter offspring would have better opportunities and social standing.
The Ideology of Blanqueamiento
Blanqueamiento took root in the colonial era when European powers established rigid racial hierarchies that placed Spaniards and Portuguese at the top while relegating Black and Indigenous people to the lowest status. Unlike the United States, where the “one-drop rule” classified anyone with African ancestry as Black, Latin America developed a more fluid racial system that allowed people to “improve” their racial status by acquiring wealth, education, or marrying lighter-skinned partners.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, blanqueamiento became an explicit national policy in countries like Brazil, Cuba, Argentina, and the Dominican Republic. These governments, fearing that their populations were “too Black,” actively encouraged European immigration, suppressed Black cultural expressions, and promoted the idea that racial mixing would “whiten” society over time.
Brazil’s Aggressive Whitening Campaign
Among Latin American nations, Brazil pursued blanqueamiento most aggressively. As the country that received the largest number of enslaved Africans during the transatlantic slave trade, Brazil’s elite viewed its large Black population as an obstacle to national progress. After the abolition of slavery in 1888, the Brazilian government implemented policies to flood the country with European immigrants while restricting Black economic advancement.
To accelerate the whitening process, Brazil created the Society for the Promotion of Immigration in 1884, which actively recruited European laborers. After slavery was abolished, this program expanded, leading to an influx of over 1.1 million Europeans between 1890 and 1909, compared to just 195,000 between 1870 and 1889. White immigrants were encouraged to marry Black Brazilians, with the expectation that Black ancestry would eventually be “bred out” of the population. Census data reflected a decline in the Afro-Brazilian population, from 19.2% in 1872 to under 5% in 1990, though it slightly rebounded to 6.2% in 2000.
After visiting Brazil in 1913, former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt wrote about the country’s racial dynamics in Outlook magazine, where he noted that the “Brazilian Negro” was disappearing. His observation aligned with the Brazilian elite’s belief that whitening policies were succeeding in reshaping the racial makeup of the country.
Cuba’s Blanqueamiento Policies
Cuba also implemented racial whitening policies after abolishing slavery in 1886. Cuban elites viewed Blackness as an obstacle to national progress and sought to increase the country’s European population. Between 1902 and 1931, the Cuban government invested over $1 million to recruit European immigrants while restricting Black migration. By 1899, more than one-third of Cuba’s population was classified as “colored,” leading to white supremacist fears of racial imbalance.
Under U.S. influence after the Spanish-American War, Cuban leaders promoted blanqueamiento by banning Black political movements and encouraging the migration of entire Spanish families. Although approximately 780,000 Spaniards immigrated to Cuba between 1902 and 1931, many did not stay, leading to the eventual failure of Cuba’s racial whitening project.
The Disappearance of Argentina’s Black Population
Argentina, often perceived as a predominantly white country today, also had a significant Black population in the 19th century, particularly in Buenos Aires. However, a combination of war, disease, and government policies led to a dramatic decline in the Black population. Argentine leaders, such as Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, openly celebrated the whitening of the nation and sought to erase African and Indigenous influence from the country’s identity.
In Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism (1845), he described Africans as a “combatant race, full of imagination and fire,” but also as “ferocious when provoked, docile, faithful, and addicted to their owner or whoever employs them.
Through military drafts, many Afro-Argentine men were sent to fight in conflicts like the Paraguayan War (1864–1870), where they suffered heavy casualties. Simultaneously, European immigration was aggressively promoted to further dilute Black and Indigenous populations. By the early 20th century, Afro-Argentines had largely disappeared from official demographic records.
Blanqueamiento in the Dominican Republic
In the Dominican Republic, blanqueamiento became deeply ingrained in national identity. Despite sharing an island with Haiti—one of the Blackest nations in the world—Dominican elites historically denied African heritage and instead emphasized their Spanish and Indigenous ancestry. Under the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo (1930–1961), the government actively promoted European immigration while discriminating against Haitians and darker-skinned Dominicans. Trujillo himself infamously used makeup to lighten his own complexion, demonstrating the extreme lengths to which blanqueamiento was internalized.
The Social and Economic Impact of Blanqueamiento
Blanqueamiento was not just a government policy—it also influenced personal decisions, social norms, and economic opportunities. Many Black and Indigenous families encouraged their children to marry lighter-skinned partners, believing that whiter offspring would have better chances at success. Economic mobility was often tied to racial appearance, with lighter-skinned individuals enjoying better employment prospects, social acceptance, and reduced exposure to racial discrimination.
Wealth also had the power to “whiten” individuals in the eyes of society. Scholars have noted that rich Black individuals were sometimes classified as white, reinforcing the notion that social status could override racial identity. In Brazil, studies have shown that groups of people were perceived as more successful when they appeared whiter, further entrenching the idea that whiteness equaled progress.
Cultural Suppression and Resistance
Blanqueamiento also extended to cultural erasure. Governments and elites often criminalized or discouraged Black and Indigenous cultural expressions. In Brazil, African religious practices like Candomblé were banned or stigmatized, while in the Dominican Republic, Haitian Vodou was demonized. Similarly, in Cuba, Afro-Cuban traditions were marginalized and often labeled as primitive. European cultural influences were actively promoted in their place, reinforcing the idea that whiteness was synonymous with civilization.
However, despite centuries of systematic whitening efforts, Afro-Latin Americans have continuously resisted erasure. In Brazil, Afro-Brazilians are reclaiming their African heritage, embracing natural hairstyles, and advocating for racial justice. In the Dominican Republic, activists from movements like Reconoci.do are fighting for the rights of Black Dominicans who have been historically marginalized. Across Latin America, there has been a resurgence of Black and Indigenous identity movements pushing back against racial hierarchies and demanding recognition.
Sources:
https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?libID=o279297
https://web.archive.org/web/20220127080327/https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2021/11/04/majority-of-latinos-say-skin-color-impacts-opportunity-in-america-and-shapes-daily-life/
https://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local–files/biblio%3Alacerda-1911-metis/lacerda_1911_metis.pdf
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-latin-american-studies/article/abs/new-afrocuban-cultural-movement-and-the-debate-on-race-in-contemporary-cuba/F549CACAD20CC05F9AC25D5BB1F114DC
https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=mcnair
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/31/argentina-white-european-racism-history
https://www.insurrecthistory.com/archives/s5il7a06raczit9n6sio2yqtov9duy
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/colorism-hiring-barrier-workplace-equity-diversity-dr-sarah-l-webb#:~:text=In%20many%20Latin%20American%20countries,Learn%20more%20about%20this%20article.)
